1. Field of the Invention
This invention relates to hemodynamic monitoring and in particular to estimation of at least one cardiovascular parameter, such as arterial compliance or resistance, pressure decay, cardiac output or stroke volume (SV), etc., as well as to a system that implements the method.
2. Background Art
Cardiac output (CO) is an important indicator not only for diagnosis of disease, but also for “real-time” monitoring of the condition of both human and animal subjects, including patients. Few hospitals are therefore without some form of conventional equipment to monitor cardiac output. Many suitable techniques—both invasive and non-invasive, as well as those that combine both—are in use and even more have been proposed in the literature.
One invasive way to determine cardiac output (or, equivalently, SV) is to mount some flow-measuring device on a catheter, and then to thread the catheter into the subject and to maneuver it so that the device is in or near the subject's heart. Some such devices inject either a bolus of material or energy (usually heat) at an upstream position, such as in the right atrium, and determine flow based on the characteristics of the injected material or energy at a downstream position, such as in the pulmonary artery. Patents that disclose implementations of such invasive techniques (in particular, thermodilution) include:    U.S. Pat. No. 4,236,527 (Newbower et al., 2 Dec. 1980);    U.S. Pat. No. 4,507,974 (Yelderman, 2 Apr. 1985);    U.S. Pat. No. 5,146,414 (McKown, et al., 8 Sep. 1992); and    U.S. Pat. No. 5,687,733 (McKown, et al., 18 Nov. 1997).
Still other invasive devices are based on the known Fick technique, according to which CO is calculated as a function of oxygenation of arterial and mixed venous blood. In most cases, oxygenation is sensed using right-heart catheterization. There have, however, also been proposals for systems that measure arterial and venous oxygenation non-invasively, in particular, using multiple wavelengths of light, but to date they have not been accurate enough to allow for satisfactory CO measurement on actual patients.
Invasive techniques have obvious disadvantages, the main one of which is of course that catheterization of the heart is potentially dangerous, especially considering that the subjects (especially intensive care patients) on which it is performed are often already in the hospital because of some actually or potentially serious condition. Invasive methods also have less obvious disadvantages: Some techniques such as thermodilution rely on assumptions, such as uniform dispersion of the injected heat, that affect the accuracy of the measurements depending on how well they are fulfilled. Moreover, the very introduction of an instrument into the blood flow may affect the value (for example, flow rate) that the instrument measures.
There has therefore been a long-standing need for some way of determining CO that is both non-invasive—or at least as minimally invasive as possible—and accurate. One blood characteristic that has proven particularly promising for accurately determining CO non-invasively is blood pressure.
Most known blood-pressure-based systems rely on the so-called pulse contour method (PCM), which calculates as estimate of CO from characteristics of the beat-to-beat pressure waveform. In the PCM, “Windkessel” (German for “air chamber”) parameters (characteristic impedance of the aorta, compliance, and total peripheral resistance) are used to construct a linear or non-linear, hemodynamic model of the aorta. In essence, blood flow is analogized to a flow of electrical current in a circuit in which an impedance is in series with a parallel-connected resistance and capacitance (compliance). The three required parameters of the model are usually determined either empirically, through a complex calibration process, or from compiled “anthropometric” data, that is, data about the age, sex, height, weight, etc., of other patients or test subjects. U.S. Pat. No. 5,400,793 (Wesseling, 28 Mar. 1995) and U.S. Pat. No. 5,535,753 (Petrucelli, et al., 16 Jul. 1996) are representative of systems that rely on a Windkessel circuit model to determine CO.
PCM-based systems can monitor CO more or less continuously, with no need for a catheter (usually right heart) to be left in the patient. Indeed, some PCM systems operate using blood pressure measurements taken using a finger cuff. One drawback of PCM, however, is that it is no more accurate than the rather simple, three-parameter model from which it is derived; in general, a model of a much higher order would be needed to faithfully account for other phenomena, such as the complex pattern of pressure wave reflections due to multiple impedance mis-matches caused by, for example, arterial branching. Because the accuracy of the basic model is usually not good enough, many improvements have been proposed, with varying degrees of complexity.
The “Method and apparatus for measuring cardiac output” disclosed by Salvatore Romano in U.S. Published Patent Application 20020022785 A1 (21 Feb. 2002, “Method and apparatus for measuring cardiac output”) represents a different attempt to improve upon PCM techniques by estimating SV, either invasively or non-invasively, as a function of the ratio between the area under the entire pressure curve and a linear combination of various components of impedance. In attempting to account for pressure reflections, the Romano system relies not only on accurate estimates of inherently noisy derivatives of the pressure function, but also on a series of empirically determined, numerical adjustments to a mean pressure value.
At the core of several methods for estimating CO is an expression of the form CO=HR*(K*SVest) where HR is the heart rate, SVest is the estimated stroke volume, and K is a scaling factor related to arterial compliance. Romano and Petrucelli, for example, rely on this expression, as do the apparatuses disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,071,244 (Band, et al., 6 Jun. 2000); and U.S. Pat. No. 6,348,038 (Band, et al., 19 Feb. 2002).
Another expression often used to determines CO is CO=MAP*C/tau where MAP is mean arterial pressure, tau is an exponential pressure decay constant, and C, like K, is a scaling factor related to arterial compliance. U.S. Pat. No. 6,485,431 (Campbell, 26 Nov. 2002) discloses one apparatus that uses such an expression.
The accuracy of these methods depends on how the compliance factors K and C are determined. In other words, an accurate estimate of compliance (or of some other value functionally related to compliance) is required. For example, Langwouters (“The Static Elastic Properties of 45 Human Thoracic and 20 Abdominal Aortas in vitro and the Parameters of a New Model,” J. Biomechanics, Vol. 17, No. 6, pp. 425-435, 1984) measured vascular compliance per unit length in human aortas and related it to patient age and sex. An aortic length was then found to be proportional to patient weight and height. A nomogram, based on this patient information, was then derived and used in conjunction with information derived from an arterial pressure waveform to improve an estimate of the compliance factor.
The different prior art apparatuses identified above each suffer from one or more drawbacks. The Band apparatus, for example, requires an external calibration using an independent measure of CO to determine a vascular impedance-related factor that is then used in CO calculations. U.S. Pat. No. 6,315,735 (Joeken, et al., 13 Nov. 2001) describes another device with the same shortcoming.
Wesseling (U.S. Pat. No. 5,400,793, 28 Mar. 1995) and Campbell each attempt to determine a vascular compliance-related factor from anthropometric data such as patient height, weight, sex, age, etc. These methods rely on relationships that are determined from human nominal measurements and do not apply robustly to a wide range of patients.
Petrucelli attempts to determine a vascular compliance-related factor from not only anthropometric data, but also from a characteristic of the arterial pressure waveform. Using only age, height, weight, systolic pressure and diastolic pressure, Petrucelli's method has proven unreliable in a wide range of patients.
Romano attempts to determine a vascular impedance-related factor solely from features of the arterial pressure waveform, and thus fails to take advantage of known relationships between patient characteristics and compliance. In other words, by freeing his system of a need for anthropometric data, Romano also loses the information contained in such data. Moreover, Romano bases several intermediate calculations on values of the derivatives of the pressure waveform. As is well known, however, such estimates of derivatives are inherently noisy. Romano's method has, consequently, proved unreliable.
What is needed is a system and method of operation for more accurately and robustly estimating cardiovascular parameters such as arterial compliance (K or C) or resistance, tau, or values computed from these parameters, such as SV and CO. This invention meets this need.